cpython-lru_cache-weakref: Doc/tutorial/classes.rst annotate

annotate Doc/tutorial/classes.rst @ 51810:c8d06dfd4c39 3.0

Block all blocking commits on the py3k branch.

author	Georg Brandl <georg@python.org>
date	Mon, 23 Feb 2009 10:42:25 +0000
parents	ea7e307ddd51
children	d06a3ebf306f

rev	line source
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	1 .. _tut-classes:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	2
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	3 *******
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	4 Classes
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	5 *******
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	6
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	7 Python's class mechanism adds classes to the language with a minimum of new
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	8 syntax and semantics. It is a mixture of the class mechanisms found in C++ and
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	9 Modula-3. As is true for modules, classes in Python do not put an absolute
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	10 barrier between definition and user, but rather rely on the politeness of the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	11 user not to "break into the definition." The most important features of classes
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	12 are retained with full power, however: the class inheritance mechanism allows
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	13 multiple base classes, a derived class can override any methods of its base
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	14 class or classes, and a method can call the method of a base class with the same
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	15 name. Objects can contain an arbitrary amount of private data.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	16
50563 93cf3a6ead63 Merged revisions 68226 via svnmerge from Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 50076 diff changeset	17 In C++ terminology, normally class members (including the data members) are
43115 95d6fe2e8e0e Tutorial update for 3.0 by Paul Dubois. Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org> parents: 42604 diff changeset	18 public (except see below :ref:`tut-private`),
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	19 and all member functions are virtual. There are no special constructors or
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	20 destructors. As in Modula-3, there are no shorthands for referencing the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	21 object's members from its methods: the method function is declared with an
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	22 explicit first argument representing the object, which is provided implicitly by
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	23 the call. As in Smalltalk, classes themselves are objects, albeit in the wider
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	24 sense of the word: in Python, all data types are objects. This provides
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	25 semantics for importing and renaming. Unlike C++ and Modula-3, built-in types
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	26 can be used as base classes for extension by the user. Also, like in C++ but
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	27 unlike in Modula-3, most built-in operators with special syntax (arithmetic
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	28 operators, subscripting etc.) can be redefined for class instances.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	29
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	30
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	31 .. _tut-terminology:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	32
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	33 A Word About Terminology
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	34 ========================
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	35
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	36 Lacking universally accepted terminology to talk about classes, I will make
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	37 occasional use of Smalltalk and C++ terms. (I would use Modula-3 terms, since
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	38 its object-oriented semantics are closer to those of Python than C++, but I
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	39 expect that few readers have heard of it.)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	40
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	41 Objects have individuality, and multiple names (in multiple scopes) can be bound
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	42 to the same object. This is known as aliasing in other languages. This is
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	43 usually not appreciated on a first glance at Python, and can be safely ignored
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	44 when dealing with immutable basic types (numbers, strings, tuples). However,
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	45 aliasing has an (intended!) effect on the semantics of Python code involving
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	46 mutable objects such as lists, dictionaries, and most types representing
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	47 entities outside the program (files, windows, etc.). This is usually used to
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	48 the benefit of the program, since aliases behave like pointers in some respects.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	49 For example, passing an object is cheap since only a pointer is passed by the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	50 implementation; and if a function modifies an object passed as an argument, the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	51 caller will see the change --- this eliminates the need for two different
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	52 argument passing mechanisms as in Pascal.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	53
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	54
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	55 .. _tut-scopes:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	56
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	57 Python Scopes and Name Spaces
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	58 =============================
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	59
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	60 Before introducing classes, I first have to tell you something about Python's
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	61 scope rules. Class definitions play some neat tricks with namespaces, and you
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	62 need to know how scopes and namespaces work to fully understand what's going on.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	63 Incidentally, knowledge about this subject is useful for any advanced Python
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	64 programmer.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	65
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	66 Let's begin with some definitions.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	67
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	68 A namespace is a mapping from names to objects. Most namespaces are currently
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	69 implemented as Python dictionaries, but that's normally not noticeable in any
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	70 way (except for performance), and it may change in the future. Examples of
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	71 namespaces are: the set of built-in names (functions such as :func:`abs`, and
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	72 built-in exception names); the global names in a module; and the local names in
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	73 a function invocation. In a sense the set of attributes of an object also form
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	74 a namespace. The important thing to know about namespaces is that there is
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	75 absolutely no relation between names in different namespaces; for instance, two
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	76 different modules may both define a function "maximize" without confusion ---
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	77 users of the modules must prefix it with the module name.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	78
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	79 By the way, I use the word attribute for any name following a dot --- for
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	80 example, in the expression ``z.real``, ``real`` is an attribute of the object
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	81 ``z``. Strictly speaking, references to names in modules are attribute
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	82 references: in the expression ``modname.funcname``, ``modname`` is a module
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	83 object and ``funcname`` is an attribute of it. In this case there happens to be
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	84 a straightforward mapping between the module's attributes and the global names
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	85 defined in the module: they share the same namespace! [#]_
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	86
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	87 Attributes may be read-only or writable. In the latter case, assignment to
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	88 attributes is possible. Module attributes are writable: you can write
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	89 ``modname.the_answer = 42``. Writable attributes may also be deleted with the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	90 :keyword:`del` statement. For example, ``del modname.the_answer`` will remove
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	91 the attribute :attr:`the_answer` from the object named by ``modname``.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	92
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	93 Name spaces are created at different moments and have different lifetimes. The
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	94 namespace containing the built-in names is created when the Python interpreter
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	95 starts up, and is never deleted. The global namespace for a module is created
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	96 when the module definition is read in; normally, module namespaces also last
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	97 until the interpreter quits. The statements executed by the top-level
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	98 invocation of the interpreter, either read from a script file or interactively,
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	99 are considered part of a module called :mod:`__main__`, so they have their own
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	100 global namespace. (The built-in names actually also live in a module; this is
44098 0889daf6d0d9 #1535: rename __builtin__ module to builtins. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44026 diff changeset	101 called :mod:`builtins`.)
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	102
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	103 The local namespace for a function is created when the function is called, and
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	104 deleted when the function returns or raises an exception that is not handled
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	105 within the function. (Actually, forgetting would be a better way to describe
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	106 what actually happens.) Of course, recursive invocations each have their own
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	107 local namespace.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	108
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	109 A scope is a textual region of a Python program where a namespace is directly
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	110 accessible. "Directly accessible" here means that an unqualified reference to a
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	111 name attempts to find the name in the namespace.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	112
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	113 Although scopes are determined statically, they are used dynamically. At any
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	114 time during execution, there are at least three nested scopes whose namespaces
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	115 are directly accessible: the innermost scope, which is searched first, contains
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	116 the local names; the namespaces of any enclosing functions, which are searched
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	117 starting with the nearest enclosing scope; the middle scope, searched next,
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	118 contains the current module's global names; and the outermost scope (searched
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	119 last) is the namespace containing built-in names.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	120
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	121 If a name is declared global, then all references and assignments go directly to
50076 c7abfab4dcdb Merged revisions 67525-67527,67529,67548-67549,67551-67552,67555,67578,67586,67593-67594,67596,67605-67606,67609,67612,67616-67617,67632,67635,67638 via svnmerge from Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 49180 diff changeset	122 the middle scope containing the module's global names. To rebind variables
c7abfab4dcdb Merged revisions 67525-67527,67529,67548-67549,67551-67552,67555,67578,67586,67593-67594,67596,67605-67606,67609,67612,67616-67617,67632,67635,67638 via svnmerge from Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 49180 diff changeset	123 found outside of the innermost scope, the :keyword:`nonlocal` statement can be
c7abfab4dcdb Merged revisions 67525-67527,67529,67548-67549,67551-67552,67555,67578,67586,67593-67594,67596,67605-67606,67609,67612,67616-67617,67632,67635,67638 via svnmerge from Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 49180 diff changeset	124 used; if not declared nonlocal, those variable are read-only (an attempt to
c7abfab4dcdb Merged revisions 67525-67527,67529,67548-67549,67551-67552,67555,67578,67586,67593-67594,67596,67605-67606,67609,67612,67616-67617,67632,67635,67638 via svnmerge from Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 49180 diff changeset	125 write to such a variable will simply create a new local variable in the
c7abfab4dcdb Merged revisions 67525-67527,67529,67548-67549,67551-67552,67555,67578,67586,67593-67594,67596,67605-67606,67609,67612,67616-67617,67632,67635,67638 via svnmerge from Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 49180 diff changeset	126 innermost scope, leaving the identically named outer variable unchanged).
45773 832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	127
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	128 Usually, the local scope references the local names of the (textually) current
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	129 function. Outside functions, the local scope references the same namespace as
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	130 the global scope: the module's namespace. Class definitions place yet another
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	131 namespace in the local scope.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	132
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	133 It is important to realize that scopes are determined textually: the global
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	134 scope of a function defined in a module is that module's namespace, no matter
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	135 from where or by what alias the function is called. On the other hand, the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	136 actual search for names is done dynamically, at run time --- however, the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	137 language definition is evolving towards static name resolution, at "compile"
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	138 time, so don't rely on dynamic name resolution! (In fact, local variables are
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	139 already determined statically.)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	140
45773 832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	141 A special quirk of Python is that -- if no :keyword:`global` or
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	142 :keyword:`nonlocal` statement is in effect -- assignments to names always go
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	143 into the innermost scope. Assignments do not copy data --- they just bind names
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	144 to objects. The same is true for deletions: the statement ``del x`` removes the
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	145 binding of ``x`` from the namespace referenced by the local scope. In fact, all
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	146 operations that introduce new names use the local scope: in particular, import
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	147 statements and function definitions bind the module or function name in the
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	148 local scope. (The :keyword:`global` statement can be used to indicate that
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	149 particular variables live in the global scope.)
44152 1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	150
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	151 The :keyword:`global` statement can be used to indicate that particular
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	152 variables live in the global scope and should be rebound there; the
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	153 :keyword:`nonlocal` statement indicates that particular variables live in
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	154 an enclosing scope and should be rebound there.
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	155
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	156 .. _tut-scopeexample:
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	157
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	158 Scopes and Namespaces Example
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	159 -----------------------------
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	160
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	161 This is an example demonstrating how to reference the different scopes and
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	162 namespaces, and how :keyword:`global` and :keyword:`nonlocal` affect variable
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	163 binding::
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	164
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	165 def scope_test():
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	166 def do_local():
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	167 spam = "local spam"
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	168 def do_nonlocal():
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	169 nonlocal spam
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	170 spam = "nonlocal spam"
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	171 def do_global():
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	172 global spam
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	173 spam = "global spam"
50563 93cf3a6ead63 Merged revisions 68226 via svnmerge from Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 50076 diff changeset	174
44152 1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	175 spam = "test spam"
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	176 do_local()
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	177 print("After local assignment:", spam)
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	178 do_nonlocal()
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	179 print("After nonlocal assignment:", spam)
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	180 do_global()
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	181 print("After global assignment:", spam)
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	182
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	183 scope_test()
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	184 print("In global scope:", spam)
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	185
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	186 The output of the example code is::
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	187
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	188 After local assignment: test spam
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	189 After nonlocal assignment: nonlocal spam
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	190 After global assignment: nonlocal spam
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	191 In global scope: global spam
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	192
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	193 Note how the local assignment (which is default) didn't change scope_test\'s
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	194 binding of spam. The :keyword:`nonlocal` assignment changed scope_test\'s
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	195 binding of spam, and the :keyword:`global` assignment changed the module-level
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	196 binding.
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	197
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	198 You can also see that there was no previous binding for spam before the
1e726aeab6a5 Document nonlocal statement. Written for GHOP by "Canadabear". Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44098 diff changeset	199 :keyword:`global` assignment.
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	200
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	201
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	202 .. _tut-firstclasses:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	203
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	204 A First Look at Classes
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	205 =======================
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	206
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	207 Classes introduce a little bit of new syntax, three new object types, and some
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	208 new semantics.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	209
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	210
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	211 .. _tut-classdefinition:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	212
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	213 Class Definition Syntax
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	214 -----------------------
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	215
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	216 The simplest form of class definition looks like this::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	217
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	218 class ClassName:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	219 <statement-1>
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	220 .
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	221 .
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	222 .
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	223 <statement-N>
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	224
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	225 Class definitions, like function definitions (:keyword:`def` statements) must be
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	226 executed before they have any effect. (You could conceivably place a class
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	227 definition in a branch of an :keyword:`if` statement, or inside a function.)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	228
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	229 In practice, the statements inside a class definition will usually be function
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	230 definitions, but other statements are allowed, and sometimes useful --- we'll
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	231 come back to this later. The function definitions inside a class normally have
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	232 a peculiar form of argument list, dictated by the calling conventions for
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	233 methods --- again, this is explained later.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	234
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	235 When a class definition is entered, a new namespace is created, and used as the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	236 local scope --- thus, all assignments to local variables go into this new
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	237 namespace. In particular, function definitions bind the name of the new
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	238 function here.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	239
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	240 When a class definition is left normally (via the end), a class object is
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	241 created. This is basically a wrapper around the contents of the namespace
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	242 created by the class definition; we'll learn more about class objects in the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	243 next section. The original local scope (the one in effect just before the class
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	244 definition was entered) is reinstated, and the class object is bound here to the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	245 class name given in the class definition header (:class:`ClassName` in the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	246 example).
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	247
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	248
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	249 .. _tut-classobjects:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	250
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	251 Class Objects
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	252 -------------
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	253
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	254 Class objects support two kinds of operations: attribute references and
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	255 instantiation.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	256
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	257 Attribute references use the standard syntax used for all attribute references
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	258 in Python: ``obj.name``. Valid attribute names are all the names that were in
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	259 the class's namespace when the class object was created. So, if the class
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	260 definition looked like this::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	261
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	262 class MyClass:
49180 c87b84db244c Forward-port of r66447. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 48667 diff changeset	263 """A simple example class"""
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	264 i = 12345
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	265 def f(self):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	266 return 'hello world'
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	267
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	268 then ``MyClass.i`` and ``MyClass.f`` are valid attribute references, returning
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	269 an integer and a function object, respectively. Class attributes can also be
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	270 assigned to, so you can change the value of ``MyClass.i`` by assignment.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	271 :attr:`__doc__` is also a valid attribute, returning the docstring belonging to
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	272 the class: ``"A simple example class"``.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	273
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	274 Class instantiation uses function notation. Just pretend that the class
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	275 object is a parameterless function that returns a new instance of the class.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	276 For example (assuming the above class)::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	277
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	278 x = MyClass()
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	279
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	280 creates a new instance of the class and assigns this object to the local
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	281 variable ``x``.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	282
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	283 The instantiation operation ("calling" a class object) creates an empty object.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	284 Many classes like to create objects with instances customized to a specific
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	285 initial state. Therefore a class may define a special method named
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	286 :meth:`__init__`, like this::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	287
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	288 def __init__(self):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	289 self.data = []
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	290
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	291 When a class defines an :meth:`__init__` method, class instantiation
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	292 automatically invokes :meth:`__init__` for the newly-created class instance. So
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	293 in this example, a new, initialized instance can be obtained by::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	294
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	295 x = MyClass()
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	296
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	297 Of course, the :meth:`__init__` method may have arguments for greater
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	298 flexibility. In that case, arguments given to the class instantiation operator
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	299 are passed on to :meth:`__init__`. For example, ::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	300
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	301 >>> class Complex:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	302 ... def __init__(self, realpart, imagpart):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	303 ... self.r = realpart
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	304 ... self.i = imagpart
50563 93cf3a6ead63 Merged revisions 68226 via svnmerge from Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 50076 diff changeset	305 ...
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	306 >>> x = Complex(3.0, -4.5)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	307 >>> x.r, x.i
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	308 (3.0, -4.5)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	309
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	310
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	311 .. _tut-instanceobjects:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	312
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	313 Instance Objects
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	314 ----------------
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	315
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	316 Now what can we do with instance objects? The only operations understood by
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	317 instance objects are attribute references. There are two kinds of valid
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	318 attribute names, data attributes and methods.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	319
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	320 data attributes correspond to "instance variables" in Smalltalk, and to "data
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	321 members" in C++. Data attributes need not be declared; like local variables,
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	322 they spring into existence when they are first assigned to. For example, if
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	323 ``x`` is the instance of :class:`MyClass` created above, the following piece of
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	324 code will print the value ``16``, without leaving a trace::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	325
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	326 x.counter = 1
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	327 while x.counter < 10:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	328 x.counter = x.counter * 2
43115 95d6fe2e8e0e Tutorial update for 3.0 by Paul Dubois. Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org> parents: 42604 diff changeset	329 print(x.counter)
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	330 del x.counter
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	331
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	332 The other kind of instance attribute reference is a method. A method is a
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	333 function that "belongs to" an object. (In Python, the term method is not unique
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	334 to class instances: other object types can have methods as well. For example,
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	335 list objects have methods called append, insert, remove, sort, and so on.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	336 However, in the following discussion, we'll use the term method exclusively to
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	337 mean methods of class instance objects, unless explicitly stated otherwise.)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	338
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	339 .. index:: object: method
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	340
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	341 Valid method names of an instance object depend on its class. By definition,
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	342 all attributes of a class that are function objects define corresponding
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	343 methods of its instances. So in our example, ``x.f`` is a valid method
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	344 reference, since ``MyClass.f`` is a function, but ``x.i`` is not, since
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	345 ``MyClass.i`` is not. But ``x.f`` is not the same thing as ``MyClass.f`` --- it
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	346 is a method object, not a function object.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	347
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	348
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	349 .. _tut-methodobjects:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	350
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	351 Method Objects
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	352 --------------
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	353
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	354 Usually, a method is called right after it is bound::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	355
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	356 x.f()
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	357
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	358 In the :class:`MyClass` example, this will return the string ``'hello world'``.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	359 However, it is not necessary to call a method right away: ``x.f`` is a method
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	360 object, and can be stored away and called at a later time. For example::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	361
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	362 xf = x.f
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	363 while True:
43115 95d6fe2e8e0e Tutorial update for 3.0 by Paul Dubois. Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org> parents: 42604 diff changeset	364 print(xf())
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	365
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	366 will continue to print ``hello world`` until the end of time.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	367
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	368 What exactly happens when a method is called? You may have noticed that
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	369 ``x.f()`` was called without an argument above, even though the function
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	370 definition for :meth:`f` specified an argument. What happened to the argument?
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	371 Surely Python raises an exception when a function that requires an argument is
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	372 called without any --- even if the argument isn't actually used...
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	373
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	374 Actually, you may have guessed the answer: the special thing about methods is
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	375 that the object is passed as the first argument of the function. In our
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	376 example, the call ``x.f()`` is exactly equivalent to ``MyClass.f(x)``. In
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	377 general, calling a method with a list of n arguments is equivalent to calling
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	378 the corresponding function with an argument list that is created by inserting
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	379 the method's object before the first argument.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	380
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	381 If you still don't understand how methods work, a look at the implementation can
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	382 perhaps clarify matters. When an instance attribute is referenced that isn't a
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	383 data attribute, its class is searched. If the name denotes a valid class
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	384 attribute that is a function object, a method object is created by packing
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	385 (pointers to) the instance object and the function object just found together in
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	386 an abstract object: this is the method object. When the method object is called
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	387 with an argument list, it is unpacked again, a new argument list is constructed
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	388 from the instance object and the original argument list, and the function object
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	389 is called with this new argument list.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	390
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	391
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	392 .. _tut-remarks:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	393
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	394 Random Remarks
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	395 ==============
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	396
44396 6556f3f22c19 Merged revisions 59605-59624 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 44152 diff changeset	397 .. These should perhaps be placed more carefully...
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	398
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	399 Data attributes override method attributes with the same name; to avoid
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	400 accidental name conflicts, which may cause hard-to-find bugs in large programs,
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	401 it is wise to use some kind of convention that minimizes the chance of
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	402 conflicts. Possible conventions include capitalizing method names, prefixing
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	403 data attribute names with a small unique string (perhaps just an underscore), or
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	404 using verbs for methods and nouns for data attributes.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	405
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	406 Data attributes may be referenced by methods as well as by ordinary users
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	407 ("clients") of an object. In other words, classes are not usable to implement
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	408 pure abstract data types. In fact, nothing in Python makes it possible to
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	409 enforce data hiding --- it is all based upon convention. (On the other hand,
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	410 the Python implementation, written in C, can completely hide implementation
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	411 details and control access to an object if necessary; this can be used by
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	412 extensions to Python written in C.)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	413
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	414 Clients should use data attributes with care --- clients may mess up invariants
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	415 maintained by the methods by stamping on their data attributes. Note that
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	416 clients may add data attributes of their own to an instance object without
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	417 affecting the validity of the methods, as long as name conflicts are avoided ---
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	418 again, a naming convention can save a lot of headaches here.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	419
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	420 There is no shorthand for referencing data attributes (or other methods!) from
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	421 within methods. I find that this actually increases the readability of methods:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	422 there is no chance of confusing local variables and instance variables when
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	423 glancing through a method.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	424
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	425 Often, the first argument of a method is called ``self``. This is nothing more
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	426 than a convention: the name ``self`` has absolutely no special meaning to
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	427 Python. (Note, however, that by not following the convention your code may be
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	428 less readable to other Python programmers, and it is also conceivable that a
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	429 class browser program might be written that relies upon such a convention.)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	430
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	431 Any function object that is a class attribute defines a method for instances of
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	432 that class. It is not necessary that the function definition is textually
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	433 enclosed in the class definition: assigning a function object to a local
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	434 variable in the class is also ok. For example::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	435
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	436 # Function defined outside the class
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	437 def f1(self, x, y):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	438 return min(x, x+y)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	439
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	440 class C:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	441 f = f1
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	442 def g(self):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	443 return 'hello world'
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	444 h = g
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	445
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	446 Now ``f``, ``g`` and ``h`` are all attributes of class :class:`C` that refer to
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	447 function objects, and consequently they are all methods of instances of
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	448 :class:`C` --- ``h`` being exactly equivalent to ``g``. Note that this practice
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	449 usually only serves to confuse the reader of a program.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	450
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	451 Methods may call other methods by using method attributes of the ``self``
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	452 argument::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	453
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	454 class Bag:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	455 def __init__(self):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	456 self.data = []
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	457 def add(self, x):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	458 self.data.append(x)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	459 def addtwice(self, x):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	460 self.add(x)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	461 self.add(x)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	462
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	463 Methods may reference global names in the same way as ordinary functions. The
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	464 global scope associated with a method is the module containing the class
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	465 definition. (The class itself is never used as a global scope!) While one
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	466 rarely encounters a good reason for using global data in a method, there are
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	467 many legitimate uses of the global scope: for one thing, functions and modules
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	468 imported into the global scope can be used by methods, as well as functions and
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	469 classes defined in it. Usually, the class containing the method is itself
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	470 defined in this global scope, and in the next section we'll find some good
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	471 reasons why a method would want to reference its own class!
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	472
45773 832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	473 Each value is an object, and therefore has a class (also called its type).
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	474 It is stored as ``object.__class__``.
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	475
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	476
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	477 .. _tut-inheritance:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	478
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	479 Inheritance
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	480 ===========
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	481
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	482 Of course, a language feature would not be worthy of the name "class" without
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	483 supporting inheritance. The syntax for a derived class definition looks like
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	484 this::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	485
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	486 class DerivedClassName(BaseClassName):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	487 <statement-1>
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	488 .
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	489 .
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	490 .
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	491 <statement-N>
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	492
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	493 The name :class:`BaseClassName` must be defined in a scope containing the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	494 derived class definition. In place of a base class name, other arbitrary
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	495 expressions are also allowed. This can be useful, for example, when the base
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	496 class is defined in another module::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	497
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	498 class DerivedClassName(modname.BaseClassName):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	499
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	500 Execution of a derived class definition proceeds the same as for a base class.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	501 When the class object is constructed, the base class is remembered. This is
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	502 used for resolving attribute references: if a requested attribute is not found
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	503 in the class, the search proceeds to look in the base class. This rule is
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	504 applied recursively if the base class itself is derived from some other class.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	505
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	506 There's nothing special about instantiation of derived classes:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	507 ``DerivedClassName()`` creates a new instance of the class. Method references
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	508 are resolved as follows: the corresponding class attribute is searched,
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	509 descending down the chain of base classes if necessary, and the method reference
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	510 is valid if this yields a function object.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	511
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	512 Derived classes may override methods of their base classes. Because methods
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	513 have no special privileges when calling other methods of the same object, a
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	514 method of a base class that calls another method defined in the same base class
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	515 may end up calling a method of a derived class that overrides it. (For C++
44396 6556f3f22c19 Merged revisions 59605-59624 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 44152 diff changeset	516 programmers: all methods in Python are effectively ``virtual``.)
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	517
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	518 An overriding method in a derived class may in fact want to extend rather than
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	519 simply replace the base class method of the same name. There is a simple way to
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	520 call the base class method directly: just call ``BaseClassName.methodname(self,
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	521 arguments)``. This is occasionally useful to clients as well. (Note that this
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	522 only works if the base class is defined or imported directly in the global
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	523 scope.)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	524
45773 832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	525 Python has two builtin functions that work with inheritance:
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	526
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	527 * Use :func:`isinstance` to check an object's type: ``isinstance(obj, int)``
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	528 will be ``True`` only if ``obj.__class__`` is :class:`int` or some class
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	529 derived from :class:`int`.
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	530
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	531 * Use :func:`issubclass` to check class inheritance: ``issubclass(bool, int)``
832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	532 is ``True`` since :class:`bool` is a subclass of :class:`int`. However,
48507 604febd204cb #3310: stop referring to basestring. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 45773 diff changeset	533 ``issubclass(float, int)`` is ``False`` since :class:`float` is not a
604febd204cb #3310: stop referring to basestring. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 45773 diff changeset	534 subclass of :class:`int`.
50563 93cf3a6ead63 Merged revisions 68226 via svnmerge from Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 50076 diff changeset	535
45773 832c820e9d14 Merged revisions 61239-61249,61252-61257,61260-61264,61269-61275,61278-61279,61285-61286,61288-61290,61298,61303-61305,61312-61314,61317,61329,61332,61344,61350-61351,61363-61376,61378-61379,61382-61383,61387-61388,61392,61395-61396,61402-61403 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 45084 diff changeset	536
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	537
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	538 .. _tut-multiple:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	539
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	540 Multiple Inheritance
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	541 --------------------
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	542
43449 7fcd9945d1bf #1211, #1212, #1213: py3k fixes to the tutorial. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43305 diff changeset	543 Python supports a form of multiple inheritance as well. A class definition with
7fcd9945d1bf #1211, #1212, #1213: py3k fixes to the tutorial. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43305 diff changeset	544 multiple base classes looks like this::
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	545
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	546 class DerivedClassName(Base1, Base2, Base3):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	547 <statement-1>
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	548 .
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	549 .
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	550 .
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	551 <statement-N>
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	552
43449 7fcd9945d1bf #1211, #1212, #1213: py3k fixes to the tutorial. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43305 diff changeset	553 For most purposes, in the simplest cases, you can think of the search for
7fcd9945d1bf #1211, #1212, #1213: py3k fixes to the tutorial. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43305 diff changeset	554 attributes inherited from a parent class as depth-first, left-to-right, not
7fcd9945d1bf #1211, #1212, #1213: py3k fixes to the tutorial. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43305 diff changeset	555 searching twice in the same class where there is an overlap in the hierarchy.
7fcd9945d1bf #1211, #1212, #1213: py3k fixes to the tutorial. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43305 diff changeset	556 Thus, if an attribute is not found in :class:`DerivedClassName`, it is searched
7fcd9945d1bf #1211, #1212, #1213: py3k fixes to the tutorial. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43305 diff changeset	557 for in :class:`Base1`, then (recursively) in the base classes of :class:`Base1`,
7fcd9945d1bf #1211, #1212, #1213: py3k fixes to the tutorial. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43305 diff changeset	558 and if it was not found there, it was searched for in :class:`Base2`, and so on.
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	559
43449 7fcd9945d1bf #1211, #1212, #1213: py3k fixes to the tutorial. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43305 diff changeset	560 In fact, it is slightly more complex than that; the method resolution order
7fcd9945d1bf #1211, #1212, #1213: py3k fixes to the tutorial. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43305 diff changeset	561 changes dynamically to support cooperative calls to :func:`super`. This
7fcd9945d1bf #1211, #1212, #1213: py3k fixes to the tutorial. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43305 diff changeset	562 approach is known in some other multiple-inheritance languages as
7fcd9945d1bf #1211, #1212, #1213: py3k fixes to the tutorial. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43305 diff changeset	563 call-next-method and is more powerful than the super call found in
7fcd9945d1bf #1211, #1212, #1213: py3k fixes to the tutorial. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43305 diff changeset	564 single-inheritance languages.
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	565
43155 335ef86a8c5c - document bytes() Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43115 diff changeset	566 Dynamic ordering is necessary because all cases of multiple inheritance exhibit
43737 3d866579117d #1370: Finish the merge r58749, log below, by resolving all conflicts in Doc/. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43449 diff changeset	567 one or more diamond relationships (where at least one of the parent classes
43155 335ef86a8c5c - document bytes() Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43115 diff changeset	568 can be accessed through multiple paths from the bottommost class). For example,
335ef86a8c5c - document bytes() Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43115 diff changeset	569 all classes inherit from :class:`object`, so any case of multiple inheritance
335ef86a8c5c - document bytes() Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43115 diff changeset	570 provides more than one path to reach :class:`object`. To keep the base classes
335ef86a8c5c - document bytes() Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43115 diff changeset	571 from being accessed more than once, the dynamic algorithm linearizes the search
335ef86a8c5c - document bytes() Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43115 diff changeset	572 order in a way that preserves the left-to-right ordering specified in each
335ef86a8c5c - document bytes() Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43115 diff changeset	573 class, that calls each parent only once, and that is monotonic (meaning that a
335ef86a8c5c - document bytes() Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43115 diff changeset	574 class can be subclassed without affecting the precedence order of its parents).
335ef86a8c5c - document bytes() Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43115 diff changeset	575 Taken together, these properties make it possible to design reliable and
335ef86a8c5c - document bytes() Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43115 diff changeset	576 extensible classes with multiple inheritance. For more detail, see
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	577 http://www.python.org/download/releases/2.3/mro/.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	578
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	579
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	580 .. _tut-private:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	581
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	582 Private Variables
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	583 =================
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	584
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	585 There is limited support for class-private identifiers. Any identifier of the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	586 form ``__spam`` (at least two leading underscores, at most one trailing
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	587 underscore) is textually replaced with ``_classname__spam``, where ``classname``
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	588 is the current class name with leading underscore(s) stripped. This mangling is
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	589 done without regard to the syntactic position of the identifier, so it can be
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	590 used to define class-private instance and class variables, methods, variables
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	591 stored in globals, and even variables stored in instances. private to this class
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	592 on instances of other classes. Truncation may occur when the mangled name
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	593 would be longer than 255 characters. Outside classes, or when the class name
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	594 consists of only underscores, no mangling occurs.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	595
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	596 Name mangling is intended to give classes an easy way to define "private"
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	597 instance variables and methods, without having to worry about instance variables
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	598 defined by derived classes, or mucking with instance variables by code outside
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	599 the class. Note that the mangling rules are designed mostly to avoid accidents;
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	600 it still is possible for a determined soul to access or modify a variable that
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	601 is considered private. This can even be useful in special circumstances, such
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	602 as in the debugger, and that's one reason why this loophole is not closed.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	603 (Buglet: derivation of a class with the same name as the base class makes use of
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	604 private variables of the base class possible.)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	605
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	606 Notice that code passed to ``exec()`` or ``eval()`` does not
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	607 consider the classname of the invoking class to be the current class; this is
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	608 similar to the effect of the ``global`` statement, the effect of which is
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	609 likewise restricted to code that is byte-compiled together. The same
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	610 restriction applies to ``getattr()``, ``setattr()`` and ``delattr()``, as well
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	611 as when referencing ``__dict__`` directly.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	612
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	613
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	614 .. _tut-odds:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	615
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	616 Odds and Ends
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	617 =============
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	618
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	619 Sometimes it is useful to have a data type similar to the Pascal "record" or C
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	620 "struct", bundling together a few named data items. An empty class definition
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	621 will do nicely::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	622
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	623 class Employee:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	624 pass
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	625
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	626 john = Employee() # Create an empty employee record
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	627
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	628 # Fill the fields of the record
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	629 john.name = 'John Doe'
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	630 john.dept = 'computer lab'
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	631 john.salary = 1000
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	632
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	633 A piece of Python code that expects a particular abstract data type can often be
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	634 passed a class that emulates the methods of that data type instead. For
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	635 instance, if you have a function that formats some data from a file object, you
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	636 can define a class with methods :meth:`read` and :meth:`readline` that get the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	637 data from a string buffer instead, and pass it as an argument.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	638
44396 6556f3f22c19 Merged revisions 59605-59624 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 44152 diff changeset	639 .. (Unfortunately, this technique has its limitations: a class can't define
6556f3f22c19 Merged revisions 59605-59624 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 44152 diff changeset	640 operations that are accessed by special syntax such as sequence subscripting
6556f3f22c19 Merged revisions 59605-59624 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 44152 diff changeset	641 or arithmetic operators, and assigning such a "pseudo-file" to sys.stdin will
6556f3f22c19 Merged revisions 59605-59624 via svnmerge from Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 44152 diff changeset	642 not cause the interpreter to read further input from it.)
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	643
44026 48af6375207e Removed the API to create unbound methods and simplified the API for bound methods. The signature is PyMethod_New(func, instance). Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 43737 diff changeset	644 Instance method objects have attributes, too: ``m.__self__`` is the instance
48af6375207e Removed the API to create unbound methods and simplified the API for bound methods. The signature is PyMethod_New(func, instance). Christian Heimes <christian@cheimes.de> parents: 43737 diff changeset	645 object with the method :meth:`m`, and ``m.__func__`` is the function object
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	646 corresponding to the method.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	647
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	648
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	649 .. _tut-exceptionclasses:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	650
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	651 Exceptions Are Classes Too
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	652 ==========================
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	653
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	654 User-defined exceptions are identified by classes as well. Using this mechanism
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	655 it is possible to create extensible hierarchies of exceptions.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	656
43305 75b265c08c91 Update tutorial/classes.rst to remove references to the old two-argument form of the raise statement. Collin Winter <collinw@gmail.com> parents: 43201 diff changeset	657 There are two valid (semantic) forms for the raise statement::
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	658
43305 75b265c08c91 Update tutorial/classes.rst to remove references to the old two-argument form of the raise statement. Collin Winter <collinw@gmail.com> parents: 43201 diff changeset	659 raise Class
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	660
43305 75b265c08c91 Update tutorial/classes.rst to remove references to the old two-argument form of the raise statement. Collin Winter <collinw@gmail.com> parents: 43201 diff changeset	661 raise Instance
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	662
43305 75b265c08c91 Update tutorial/classes.rst to remove references to the old two-argument form of the raise statement. Collin Winter <collinw@gmail.com> parents: 43201 diff changeset	663 In the first form, ``Class`` must be an instance of :class:`type` or of a
75b265c08c91 Update tutorial/classes.rst to remove references to the old two-argument form of the raise statement. Collin Winter <collinw@gmail.com> parents: 43201 diff changeset	664 class derived from it. The first form is a shorthand for::
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	665
43305 75b265c08c91 Update tutorial/classes.rst to remove references to the old two-argument form of the raise statement. Collin Winter <collinw@gmail.com> parents: 43201 diff changeset	666 raise Class()
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	667
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	668 A class in an except clause is compatible with an exception if it is the same
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	669 class or a base class thereof (but not the other way around --- an except clause
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	670 listing a derived class is not compatible with a base class). For example, the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	671 following code will print B, C, D in that order::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	672
48667 949b9a2b9867 #3525: 3.0 exception changes in tutorial. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 48507 diff changeset	673 class B(Exception):
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	674 pass
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	675 class C(B):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	676 pass
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	677 class D(C):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	678 pass
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	679
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	680 for c in [B, C, D]:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	681 try:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	682 raise c()
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	683 except D:
43115 95d6fe2e8e0e Tutorial update for 3.0 by Paul Dubois. Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org> parents: 42604 diff changeset	684 print("D")
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	685 except C:
43115 95d6fe2e8e0e Tutorial update for 3.0 by Paul Dubois. Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org> parents: 42604 diff changeset	686 print("C")
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	687 except B:
43115 95d6fe2e8e0e Tutorial update for 3.0 by Paul Dubois. Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org> parents: 42604 diff changeset	688 print("B")
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	689
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	690 Note that if the except clauses were reversed (with ``except B`` first), it
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	691 would have printed B, B, B --- the first matching except clause is triggered.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	692
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	693 When an error message is printed for an unhandled exception, the exception's
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	694 class name is printed, then a colon and a space, and finally the instance
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	695 converted to a string using the built-in function :func:`str`.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	696
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	697
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	698 .. _tut-iterators:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	699
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	700 Iterators
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	701 =========
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	702
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	703 By now you have probably noticed that most container objects can be looped over
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	704 using a :keyword:`for` statement::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	705
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	706 for element in [1, 2, 3]:
43115 95d6fe2e8e0e Tutorial update for 3.0 by Paul Dubois. Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org> parents: 42604 diff changeset	707 print(element)
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	708 for element in (1, 2, 3):
43115 95d6fe2e8e0e Tutorial update for 3.0 by Paul Dubois. Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org> parents: 42604 diff changeset	709 print(element)
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	710 for key in {'one':1, 'two':2}:
43115 95d6fe2e8e0e Tutorial update for 3.0 by Paul Dubois. Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org> parents: 42604 diff changeset	711 print(key)
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	712 for char in "123":
43115 95d6fe2e8e0e Tutorial update for 3.0 by Paul Dubois. Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org> parents: 42604 diff changeset	713 print(char)
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	714 for line in open("myfile.txt"):
43115 95d6fe2e8e0e Tutorial update for 3.0 by Paul Dubois. Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org> parents: 42604 diff changeset	715 print(line)
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	716
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	717 This style of access is clear, concise, and convenient. The use of iterators
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	718 pervades and unifies Python. Behind the scenes, the :keyword:`for` statement
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	719 calls :func:`iter` on the container object. The function returns an iterator
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	720 object that defines the method :meth:`__next__` which accesses elements in the
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	721 container one at a time. When there are no more elements, :meth:`__next__`
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	722 raises a :exc:`StopIteration` exception which tells the :keyword:`for` loop to
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	723 terminate. You can call the :meth:`__next__` method using the :func:`next`
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	724 builtin; this example shows how it all works::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	725
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	726 >>> s = 'abc'
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	727 >>> it = iter(s)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	728 >>> it
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	729 <iterator object at 0x00A1DB50>
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	730 >>> next(it)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	731 'a'
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	732 >>> next(it)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	733 'b'
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	734 >>> next(it)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	735 'c'
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	736 >>> next(it)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	737
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	738 Traceback (most recent call last):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	739 File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	740 next(it)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	741 StopIteration
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	742
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	743 Having seen the mechanics behind the iterator protocol, it is easy to add
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	744 iterator behavior to your classes. Define a :meth:`__iter__` method which
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	745 returns an object with a :meth:`__next__` method. If the class defines
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	746 :meth:`__next__`, then :meth:`__iter__` can just return ``self``::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	747
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	748 class Reverse:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	749 "Iterator for looping over a sequence backwards"
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	750 def __init__(self, data):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	751 self.data = data
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	752 self.index = len(data)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	753 def __iter__(self):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	754 return self
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	755 def __next__(self):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	756 if self.index == 0:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	757 raise StopIteration
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	758 self.index = self.index - 1
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	759 return self.data[self.index]
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	760
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	761 >>> for char in Reverse('spam'):
43115 95d6fe2e8e0e Tutorial update for 3.0 by Paul Dubois. Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org> parents: 42604 diff changeset	762 ... print(char)
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	763 ...
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	764 m
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	765 a
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	766 p
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	767 s
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	768
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	769
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	770 .. _tut-generators:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	771
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	772 Generators
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	773 ==========
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	774
43737 3d866579117d #1370: Finish the merge r58749, log below, by resolving all conflicts in Doc/. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43449 diff changeset	775 :term:`Generator`\s are a simple and powerful tool for creating iterators. They
3d866579117d #1370: Finish the merge r58749, log below, by resolving all conflicts in Doc/. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43449 diff changeset	776 are written like regular functions but use the :keyword:`yield` statement
3d866579117d #1370: Finish the merge r58749, log below, by resolving all conflicts in Doc/. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43449 diff changeset	777 whenever they want to return data. Each time :func:`next` is called on it, the
3d866579117d #1370: Finish the merge r58749, log below, by resolving all conflicts in Doc/. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43449 diff changeset	778 generator resumes where it left-off (it remembers all the data values and which
3d866579117d #1370: Finish the merge r58749, log below, by resolving all conflicts in Doc/. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43449 diff changeset	779 statement was last executed). An example shows that generators can be trivially
3d866579117d #1370: Finish the merge r58749, log below, by resolving all conflicts in Doc/. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43449 diff changeset	780 easy to create::
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	781
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	782 def reverse(data):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	783 for index in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1):
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	784 yield data[index]
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	785
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	786 >>> for char in reverse('golf'):
43115 95d6fe2e8e0e Tutorial update for 3.0 by Paul Dubois. Guido van Rossum <guido@python.org> parents: 42604 diff changeset	787 ... print(char)
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	788 ...
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	789 f
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	790 l
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	791 o
50566 ea7e307ddd51 Merged revisions 68229 via svnmerge from Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 50563 diff changeset	792 g
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	793
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	794 Anything that can be done with generators can also be done with class based
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	795 iterators as described in the previous section. What makes generators so
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	796 compact is that the :meth:`__iter__` and :meth:`__next__` methods are created
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	797 automatically.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	798
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	799 Another key feature is that the local variables and execution state are
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	800 automatically saved between calls. This made the function easier to write and
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	801 much more clear than an approach using instance variables like ``self.index``
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	802 and ``self.data``.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	803
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	804 In addition to automatic method creation and saving program state, when
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	805 generators terminate, they automatically raise :exc:`StopIteration`. In
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	806 combination, these features make it easy to create iterators with no more effort
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	807 than writing a regular function.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	808
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	809
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	810 .. _tut-genexps:
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	811
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	812 Generator Expressions
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	813 =====================
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	814
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	815 Some simple generators can be coded succinctly as expressions using a syntax
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	816 similar to list comprehensions but with parentheses instead of brackets. These
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	817 expressions are designed for situations where the generator is used right away
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	818 by an enclosing function. Generator expressions are more compact but less
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	819 versatile than full generator definitions and tend to be more memory friendly
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	820 than equivalent list comprehensions.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	821
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	822 Examples::
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	823
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	824 >>> sum(i*i for i in range(10)) # sum of squares
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	825 285
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	826
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	827 >>> xvec = [10, 20, 30]
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	828 >>> yvec = [7, 5, 3]
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	829 >>> sum(x*y for x,y in zip(xvec, yvec)) # dot product
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	830 260
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	831
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	832 >>> from math import pi, sin
45084 38604fa2a48f Update docs w.r.t. PEP 3100 changes -- patch for GHOP by Dan Finnie. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 44396 diff changeset	833 >>> sine_table = {x: sin(x*pi/180) for x in range(0, 91)}
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	834
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	835 >>> unique_words = set(word for line in page for word in line.split())
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	836
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	837 >>> valedictorian = max((student.gpa, student.name) for student in graduates)
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	838
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	839 >>> data = 'golf'
43201 4902671dd678 Tutorial formatting patch by Robin Stocker. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: 43155 diff changeset	840 >>> list(data[i] for i in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1))
42604 9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	841 ['f', 'l', 'o', 'g']
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	842
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	843
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	844
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	845 .. rubric:: Footnotes
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	846
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	847 .. [#] Except for one thing. Module objects have a secret read-only attribute called
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	848 :attr:`__dict__` which returns the dictionary used to implement the module's
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	849 namespace; the name :attr:`__dict__` is an attribute but not a global name.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	850 Obviously, using this violates the abstraction of namespace implementation, and
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	851 should be restricted to things like post-mortem debuggers.
9e1529bf0442 Move the 3k reST doc tree in place. Georg Brandl <georg@python.org> parents: diff changeset	852

Mercurial > cpython-lru_cache-weakref

annotate Doc/tutorial/classes.rst @ 51810:c8d06dfd4c39 3.0